![]() ![]() We refer to these compromises as trade-offs or costs between life history variables ( Reznick, 1985). Life history traits, such as growth, survival and reproduction, are linked through constraining relationships, implying that to be the best in all ecological situations is not biologically possible and to be well fitted to even one situation requires a compromise. Finally, the mechanisms that enable the compensation of the reproductive costs are detailed, including the plastic responses of photosynthesis and growth, the effects of the timing of investment, plant architecture and plant physiological integration. By contrast, females of herbaceous perennials were generally the larger sex, which did not fit the expectations of the hypothesis. Females of woody dioecious species were consistently smaller than males supporting the costs of reproduction hypothesis. The cost of reproduction as an evolutionary determinant of sexual dimorphism in life history traits in dioecious species was specifically tested, considering that the higher cost of reproduction in females has driven the life history traits related to sexual dimorphism. ![]() Despite some exceptions, case studies, examined by trade-offs between reproduction and other life-history traits, generally support the predictions of the cost of reproduction hypothesis. This review reports on the processes associated with costs of reproduction, including some theoretical considerations, definitions and methodological aspects, followed by a list of the situations where costs are difficult to find.
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